Beyond the ballot: Understanding voters’ perception on electoral reforms and mass media influence in Nigeria

Elections are critical aspects of functional democracy and their perceived credibility ultimately affects the extent of public participation in political processes. As an underlying psychological process, perception influences how individuals arrange, interpret, and derive meanings from the information they encounter. This study examines electorates’ perceptions of electoral reforms as a prerequisite for credible elections in Nigeria and the perceived roles of the mass media in this regard. The study adopts the survey research method to sample the views of 384 registered voters in the 2023 Nigerian general elections using the multistage sampling technique. The collected data were analysed using the descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation. Findings show that the respondents are very much aware of previous efforts aimed at electoral reforms in Nigeria, and they perceive such reforms as prerequisites for credible elections because they sanitise election-related activities and ensure that election results reflect electorates’ desires. Similarly, the respondents also perceive the mass media as key players in electoral reform efforts because they arouse citizens’ political consciousness on the need for electoral reforms by creating awareness of the defects in existing electoral processes and educating the masses on the need for adequate political involvement. The study recommends, among others, that Nigeria should sustain genuine electoral reforms until the ideal electoral system evolves, and Nigerians should continue to participate in all electoral processes as politics is too important to be left to politicians alone.


Introduction
Globally, the electoral process is a pivotal mechanism in determining the suitability of individuals entrusted with governance at various levels and Nigeria is not an exception [1] .Spanning from the inaugural colonial-era election in 1922 to the recently concluded 2023 general elections, a period of over 101 years, Nigeria has witnessed a plethora of elections marred by irregularities.These irregularities encompass issues such as organisational deficiencies, lack of transparency, electoral fraud, ballot box snatching, violence, and disenfranchisement of voters [2][3][4][5] .The presence of these irregularities has been corroborated by local and international election monitors [6] , potentially contributing to the hindrance of effective political participation and the equitable distribution of resources that are crucial to democratic governance in Nigeria [7] .A likely catalyst for these electoral malpractices is the unyielding pursuit of power by any means necessary [8] , underscoring the urgency for electoral reforms.
Electoral reforms denote coordinated endeavors by a political entity to rectify irregularities in its electoral processes, aiming to enhance the credibility of elections.These reforms are directed at rendering the electoral system more responsive to the expectations of the electorate when exercising their voting rights to choose political leaders [9] .The need for electoral reforms arises when the mechanisms for obtaining political power are perceived as weak, flawed, and substandard in comparison to global best practices.Many Nigerians are cognisant of the myriad challenges afflicting the country's electoral system, including the lack of independence of electoral bodies such as the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) and State Electoral Commissions (SECs) at the federal and state levels respectively [10] .Notably, the President appoints the INEC Chairman at the national level and the Governor determines the Electoral Commissioners at the state level just as the government bears full responsibility for funding the commissions [11] .This situation raises concerns that government officials may exploit these appointments and funding to compromise the objectivity of INEC and SECs, and influence them to align with government preferences.
Given this backdrop, many Nigerians advocate for electoral reforms through the mass media, recognising the critical role of the mass media in shaping public opinion [12] .The involvement of the mass media in the call for electoral reforms is intricately linked to the constitutional provision outlined in Section 22 of the 1999 constitution of Nigeria.This provision emphasises the freedom of the press, radio, television, and other media agencies to uphold the fundamental objectives of the Nigerian state, holding the government accountable to the people.Thus, the constitutional mandate underscores the responsibility of the mass media in advocating for electoral reforms and national objectives.
The call for electoral reforms in Nigeria has garnered significant scholarly attention, particularly in the context of the involvement of the mass media.Some scholars highlight that electoral reforms are instigated to enhance the credibility of the electoral system [9] , while others contend that these reforms emerge in response to observed irregularities in previous elections [13] .Research has also shown that a substantial portion of individuals' understanding of political processes is derived from mass media messages, and this varies across countries [14] .Specifically, studies indicate that political processes in Nigeria face challenges due to the limited political consciousness among citizens, attributing this deficiency to the constraints faced by the mass media in promoting political awareness [3] .More so, scholars argue that the development of democratic processes, including the enhancement of elections through electoral reforms, hinges significantly on the performance of the mass media, considering their roles as both societal watchdogs and the voice of the people [5,15] .While existing studies provide substantial evidence supporting the desirability of electoral reforms and the potential instrumental role of the mass media in their realisation, there is a noticeable gap in the literature concerning the perceptions of the electorates regarding electoral reforms as a prerequisite for credible elections in Nigeria.Moreover, the specific role of the Nigerian mass media in promoting these reforms remains underexplored.Generally, perception is a crucial psychological determinant of public reforms, and it is beyond a people's mere feeling as it extends to the psychological factors underlying their beliefs, actions and expectations.It is a mental process by which individuals arrange, interpret, and derive meaningful understanding from the information they encounter, and this cognitive process not only shapes people's visualisation and conceptualisation of the surrounding world but also enables them to respond appropriately within a given context [16,17] .Hence, this study seeks to offer a nuanced understanding of electorates' perceptions of electoral reforms as prerequisite for credible elections in Nigeria, as well as investigate electorates' perceptions of the role of the mass media in actuating electoral reforms in Nigeria.

Electoral reforms as prerequisite for credible elections in Nigeria
Nigeria has a long history of attempted political and/or electoral reforms in the quest for credible elections.
Records show that formal election in Nigeria was introduced by the Clifford's Constitution of 1922.The constitution was the first in the political history of Nigeria and provided for elections into the legislative council of the colonial administration in Lagos and Calabar on the basis that voters must be British citizens or British-protected citizens of 21 years and above [18,19] .
Many political scholars believe that the electoral process, as provided for in the Clifford's Constitution, was defective, hence efforts were made to address such defects in the Richard's constitution of 1946, signaling the commencement of electoral reforms in Nigeria's political sphere.The Richard's constitution of 1946 expanded the scope of political activity in Nigeria (and by extension, the electoral process) by introducing regional governments in the political administration of the country, initiated federalism as a system of government and reduced the requisite annual income for eligibility to vote from £100 to £50 [20] .The Richard's Constitution was replaced by the Macpherson Constitution of 1951 in a bid to consolidate reforms in Nigeria's electoral processes.This constitution ushered in a competitive electoral politics in the country and also adjusted the eligibility of voters by replacing it with an annual minimum income of £50 with the payment of taxes [19,21] .This may not be unconnected with the heightened political agitation for independence at this period to the extent that in 1953, Anthony Enahoro of the then Action Group (AG) vehemently moved a motion for the political independence of Nigeria by 1956.The Macpherson Constitution did not operate in Nigeria for long as it was replaced by the Lyttleton Constitution of 1954, which further reformed the electoral process by introducing direct elections into federal and regional legislative arms of the government [22] .
From independence in 1960 to date, Nigeria has been pursuing electoral reforms in attempts to continually improve the electoral process and enhance the credibility of election in the country.Incidentally, with many of these attempted electoral reforms, a new election umpire was commissioned [23] .It is on record that Nigeria has reconstituted her Electoral Management Body (EMB) for not less than twelve times since independence in 1960 viz: 1963 (twice) ; 1964; 1977; 1981; 1987; 1989; 1993; 1994; 1998; 2000 and 2004 [11] .
Electoral reforms are public policy issues which lead to the introduction of new laws governing the conduct and management of elections usually because of some observed irregularities in previous elections [24][25][26] .They refer to changes in the electoral process/system geared towards improving how electorates' desires are expressed in election results [13,26] .These desired changes can bring about sound innovations and initiatives that can better the lots of the populace in terms of conducting free and fair elections and bringing culprits in election rigging to justice.
Electoral reform is a process, and studies show that it covers a lot of issues ranging from expansion of voting rights to the redistribution of constituency boundaries, and the elimination of electoral corruption.It also includes regulations of political broadcasting, reform of legislative structures, the development of an independent EMB, the facilities for registering and voting, and the public funding of party campaigns [6,26] .According to the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance [27] , electoral reform is a broad term that covers improving the responsiveness of electoral processes to public desires and expectations.It is, however, pointed out that not all electoral changes can be considered as electoral reforms except the primary goal of such reforms is to improve electoral processes by fostering impartiality, inclusiveness, transparency, integrity and accuracy through an efficient EMB and other stakeholders playing different legal, administrative, and political roles [24,25] .
In the context of legal electoral reforms, the reform begins with the amendment of the constitution, the electoral laws or related regulations and rules to enhance the integrity and credibility of the electoral process and the relevance and adequacy of the legal framework within which INEC delivers its services and this may include institutional reform of the INEC itself [26] .Administrative electoral reform, on the other hand, involves the introduction of new strategies, structures, policies, procedures and technical innovations that enable the EMBs to implement their legal responsibilities as specified in the constitution in the delivery of their services in a more efficient, effective and sustainable manner [27] .
Electoral reforms in Nigeria are calls by the populace for change but sometimes subject to the dictates of the ruling party or ruling class.Renwick [24] argues that an electoral system can be subjected to changes through several means, modes and by many different factors and circumstances just as there are many stakeholders in the change/reform processes, and that most electoral reforms involve politicians who influence the process.This corresponds with the view of scholars who assert that electoral reform may be popular depending on prevailing circumstances as those who exploited the lapses in the status quo may not favour electoral reforms that are not in their political interests [28] .In the same vein, other scholars also aver that a key issue influencing the politics of electoral reforms is party interests [13] .This accounts for the reason Nigeria's political landscape is characterised by constant electoral reforms without corresponding improvements in the electoral process.Electoral reforms have, therefore, become tools for political appointments and access to state resources as a reward for alliance, support or patronage as well as acts of deceit to woo popular support and legitimacy for the status quo.However, these do not negate the need and viability of electoral reforms when such are to be done genuinely [24,[29][30][31][32][33] .

The mass media as imperatives for electoral reforms
The mass media can be described as a critical institution for electoral reforms in a democratic society.This is because they are credited with significant capacity to influence public orientation on political processes through their sourcing, processing and provision of relevant information and education on the subject matters [5,32] .The mass media facilitate successful electoral reforms by helping to set societal agenda on them in the public sphere, providing relevant details on the subject matter through adequate information and education to shape public views, promote public participation, and monitor policy formulation and implementation processes.
The mass media are very successful in societal agenda setting functions in the socio-political sphere where electoral reforms fall into since they possess the potentials to determine what issues to cover as well as how and when to do so [33] .Therefore, they may initiate electoral reforms by deliberately focusing attention on the need for it through intensive and extensive coverage of issues relating to politics and elections.As they point public attention to the issues necessitating electoral reforms, there are greater chances that political actors, election umpires, election monitors and the general public would become interested in electoral reforms and begin to act accordingly.Once this happens, these stakeholders are likely to form appropriate opinions and eventually take actions that would bring about electoral reforms [34,35] .
The mass media have also proven to be important to electoral reforms given their ability to provide information and education tailored to build essential public knowledge on the issues.They are credited with being able to contribute significantly to electoral reforms as a democratic process by adequately informing the citizenry [35] .This makes it possible to have a knowledgeable public capable of engaging the issues from informed perspectives in order to arrive at productive decisions and actions that promote electoral reforms in the society [3,14,36] .
The mass media also help in the shaping of public opinion through their coverage of electoral reforms in the society.This is because they are able to significantly redefine the notions of the citizenry and shape its views on a wide range of social and political matters which include electoral reforms [35][36][37] .For electoral reforms initiatives to succeed, a favourable public opinion is required because the reforms concern political processes that involve the generality of members of the public.Public opinion on electoral reforms may either lead to their acceptance or rejection.Since electoral reforms fall within the realm of public policy, the mass media are useful in influencing public opinion that can lead to the policy being accepted or rejected [34,38] .By focusing on electoral reforms in their content packaging and delivery, the mass media can mobilise the public to participation in the process just like in other political processes [38,39] .This ability of the mass media to mobilise public participation in debates, decisions and actions in a democratic process enhances the achievement of political cohesion and integration on a national scale [14,15,33,36] .Hence, adequate coverage of the implementation of electoral reforms by the mass media is important to keep it in the limelight, thereby making it easy to promptly detect attempts to sabotage the policy at any given time during implementation [37][38][39] .

Theoretical framework: The Agenda Setting Theory
This research relies on theoretical insights from the Agenda-Setting Theory (AST) of the press, particularly in relation to how the mass media influence perceptions and serves as a catalyst for electoral reforms in a democratic society.The AST, categorised among the conditionally powerful media effect theories, stems from the work of McCombs and Shaw in 1972 [15] .The theory's fundamental premise is that the mass media play a crucial role in determining the importance of societal issues through the volume, direction, and depth of its presentation to the public by telling people what to think about and not necessarily how to think [1] .
In the political domain, where concerns about electoral reforms arise, mass-mediated messages have been recognised as influential in shaping the societal political agenda, given that the audience learns about public issues from the media and gauges their importance accordingly [1,34] .Thus, the mass media can effectively draw the attention of citizens in a democratic society to the necessity for electoral reform, educate them on the subject, and influence them to attribute the appropriate level of importance to it.The media's agenda-setting on electoral reforms can be dissected into three stages.First, the mass media can highlight the issue of electoral reform by emphasising irregularities in existing electoral processes.Evidence suggests that the mass media effectively communicates political and governance issues to citizens in a democratic society [16,39] .Second, the media can educate the audience on the deficiencies in current electoral processes.Observably, the media's agenda-setting role extends beyond drawing attention to providing insightful education through detailed interpretations, linkages, and illustrations [9] .This education equips citizens with deeper insights, enabling them to engage in meaningful discussions about electoral reforms in the political sphere.Third, the media's agenda-setting function involves providing platforms for public interaction on the issue.The mass media serve as forums for people to express their views on electoral reforms, fostering communication exchanges that allow citizens to share ideas and reach a consensus.These consensus points are expected to be considered by relevant government bodies as the collective wishes of the people, thereby influencing public policies in the process.

Design and participants
This study adopted the cross-sectional design using the survey research method which is widely used in behavioural research when measuring the opinion and perception of respondents towards social issues [40,41] .The population of the study comprised all registered voters in Delta State for the 2023 General Elections estimated at 3,221,697 [42] .From this figure, the study engaged a sample of 384 obtained from the Krejcie and Morgan sample size determination table which is freely available online.

Sampling procedure
We adopted a multi-stage sampling technique to select the eligible respondents.In the first stage, we used the simple random sampling technique to select two local government areas (LGAs) from each of the three senatorial districts of Delta State through a balloting without replacement method.In the second stage, we also used the simple random sampling to select three urban and three semi-urban towns (one from each of three senatorial districts) and the following towns were selected: Delta North Senatorial District-Oshimili South LGA (Asaba) and Ukwuani LGA (Ubiaruku); Delta Central Senatorial District-Ethiope East LGA (Abraka) and Uvwie LGA (Ugbomro); Delta South Senatorial District-Warri South LGA (Warri) and Isoko North LGA (Ozoro).In the final stage, purposive sampling technique was used to select 64 respondents from each of the selected towns, using registration for the 2023 general election as the major inclusion criterion.

Instrument and data analysis
Structured questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection.The instrument was designed in the 5point Likert scale format, with possible responses ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).The variables of interest were measured using self-developed questions.The face and content validity techniques were used to assess the match of the test questions with the measured variables as recommended in previous studies [43] .Thus, the instrument was validated by an expert in the Department of Psychology and another in Department of Mass Communication at Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria.
On the reliability of the instrument, a pilot survey of 20 participants selected outside the study locations was conducted, representing about 5% of the entire study sample.The result of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) analysis showed a good measure of internal consistency as all items in the inter-item correlation matrix yielded positive output, all values in the corrected item-total correlations were above 0.4 (an indication that the items measured the same construct) and the Cronbach's Alpha coefficient for each scale was greater than the minimum 0.7 benchmark.
For the data analysis, we utilised descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation to address the research inquiries.In this wise, a mean value equal to or greater than 3.00 signified respondents' agreement with a particular Likert scale item, just as a standard deviation value of 1.47 or less indicated low variability in responses, and vice versa [40,43] .

Ethical considerations
The study strictly adhered to ethical principles governing the involvement of human participants in research.Ethical approval was secured from the Department of Mass Communication Research Ethics Committee at Delta State University, Abraka, under approval number DELSU/MCN/MCNREC/17082023. Clear information regarding the research objectives and nature was communicated to the participants, and their written informed consent was duly obtained via the opening part of the questionnaire.To uphold respondent confidentiality, the questionnaire deliberately excluded any identifying information.

Electorate's perceptions on electoral reforms as prerequisite for credible elections in Nigeria
According to the data presented in Table 1, the majority of the respondents have a positive perception towards electoral reforms as prerequisite for credible elections in Nigeria.Specially, most of the respondents agreed that Nigeria has had numerous electoral reforms in the past (X = 4.28, SD = .57)and such reforms are prerequisites for credible elections (X = 4.59, SD = .63).The respondents were also of the view that previous electoral reforms attempted to address issues bordering on credible, free and fair elections (X = 4.30, SD = .60),and that such reforms are important requirements for credible elections because they ensure that electorates' desires are reflected in election results (X = 4.48, SD = .52).Similarly, the data showed that the respondents perceived that electoral reforms ensure the sanitisation of all election-related activities of political parties (X = 4.44, SD = .57).

Electorate's perceptions on the role of mass media in actuating electoral reforms in Nigeria
The data presented in Table 2 indicate that most of the respondents perceived the mass media as a critical institution in the promotion of genuine electoral reforms in Nigeria.To this end, most of them agreed that mass media contents arouse public political consciousness on electoral reforms in Nigeria (X = 4.18, SD= 0.69), create awareness of defects in existing electoral processes (X = 4.28; SD = .89)and educate Nigerians on the ideal electoral processes (X = 4.24; SD = 1.00).The respondents also reported that mass media contents on electoral reforms in Nigeria encourage public clamour for electoral reforms (X = 4.06; SD = 1.14) and mobilise public participation in the processes of electoral reforms (X = 4.11; SD = .94).

Discussion
Analysing data collected from registered voters in six selected towns of Delta State, Nigeria, this study seeks to offer a nuanced empirical understanding of public perceptions on electoral reforms as prerequisite for credible elections in Nigeria as well as offer critical insights into electorates' perceptions on the role of mass media in actuating electoral reforms in Nigeria.The Findings showed that the Nigerian electorates are aware of previous electoral reform efforts in the country and they perceive such reforms as prerequisites for credible elections because they help to sanitise all election-related activities of political parties and ensure that voters' desires are reflected in election results.This findings aligns with previous studies which concluded that electoral reforms are designed to bring about changes that improve electoral processes in the society [26] .In the area of influencing the activities of political parties, the study affirms the observation of stakeholders that electoral reforms cover issues such as expansion of voting rights, redistribution of constituencies, elimination of electoral corruption, regulations of political broadcasting and the public funding of party campaigns [27] .This means that both the society and political parties benefit from electoral reforms directly and indirectly as suggested by earlier studies which concluded that irregularities in elections can undermine the legitimacy of government and erode public confidence in public officers [31] .Furthermore, our study also indicates that the Nigerian electorates perceive the mass media as a critical institution in genuine electoral reform efforts because their contents arouse public political consciousness on electoral reforms, create awareness of defects in existing electoral processes and educate Nigerians on the ideal electoral processes.Mass media contents on electoral reforms in Nigeria also encourage public clamour for electoral reforms and mobilise public participation in the processes.This finding affirms the assumption that the mass media are very powerful in setting agenda on socio-political issues in the country as they go beyond drawing attention to the issues to providing insightful education on the matter through detailed interpretations, linkages and illustrations [9] .The finding also supports the submission of scholars that the mass media possess the potentials to determine what issues to cover in the society as well as how and when to do so [15] .It also upholds the view that the mass media are credited with significant capability to influence public orientation on political issues through sourcing, processing and systematic dissemination of critical information and education on them [33] .

Conclusion and limitations of the study
This study has established that Nigerians are aware of the many attempts at electoral reforms in the country and they also consider such restructuring as prerequisite for credible elections in the country given that they ensure that electorates' desires are reflected in election results and also help to sanitise all election-related activities of political parties.The study has also shown that Nigerians perceive that the mass media are critical to genuine electoral reforms in Nigeria because they help in arousing the political consciousness of the public on the need for electoral reforms by creating awareness on the defects in existing electoral processes, educating Nigerians on the ideal electoral processes, encouraging public clamour for electoral reforms and mobilising public participation in electoral reforms processes through their planned and sustained coverage of related issues.
Arising from the conclusion above, this study recommends that Nigeria should sustain electoral reforms until the ideal electoral system evolves, and Nigerians should continue to participate in all electoral processes as politics is too important to be left to politicians alone.Similarly, the mass media should sustain their focus on the electoral process in order to continue to facilitate electoral reforms in the country.It is also recommended that political parties should place public interest above their political interest and be objective in calling for electoral reforms in Nigeria.
Although our study offers certain interesting perspectives on media and electoral reforms discourse, the findings could be potentially limited in some ways.First, the scope of our study may affect the extent of generalisability of the findings considering the limited geographical distribution of the participants.While the research primarily assessed the electorate's views on electoral reforms as a crucial factor for credible elections in Nigeria, and the perceived influence of mass media in this context, the participants were exclusively sourced from Delta State in the south-south region of Nigeria.Consequently, the generalisability of our findings to other regions in the country may be compromised.Therefore, we suggest incorporating a more diverse and representative sample in future studies.Also, our study relied on a self-reported measure to gauge respondents' perceptions of electoral reforms concerning electoral credibility.While this approach is commonly employed in behavioural research, its accuracy hinges on respondents' willingness and ability to recall their past behaviours and perceptions accurately [1,10,17,42] .To address this limitation, we propose that future research adopts a mixed-methods approach, ensuring a more comprehensive and robust data collection process.

Table 1 .
Respondents perceptions on electoral reforms as prerequisite for credible elections in Nigeria.

Table 2 .
Perceptions on the role of mass media in actuating electoral reforms in Nigeria.