Open Journal Systems

The relationship between financial inclusion and women’s empowerment in rural Bangladesh: The moderating effect of agent banking

Tasnim Sohrab, Fazli Idris, Noorasiah Sulaiman

Article ID: 1955
Vol 9, Issue 1, 2024, Article identifier:

VIEWS - 137 (Abstract) 77 (PDF)

Abstract

The importance of financial inclusion (FI) for women’s empowerment (WE) has been demonstrated in recent studies. However, it still needs to be determined how FI might assist women in gaining power. The purpose of this research is to learn how financial institutions (FIs) interact with women’s empowerment through agent banking (AB) (WEs). Using a quantitative research design—The study includes 408 women residing in rural Bangladesh. As demonstrated, agent banking moderates the favorable effect of financial inclusion on economic and social empowerment, suggesting that this effect is indirect. These results suggest that financial inclusion strengthens women’s power when financial institutions prioritize the development of agent banking. Despite the importance of expanding access to banking services, more is needed to increase women’s empowerment if institutions adopt agent banking practices.


Keywords

financial inclusion; agent banking; women empowerment; rural areas

Full Text:

PDF



References

1. Dar FA. Literature and its impact on women’s empowerment: An assessment. Electronic Research Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 2020; 2(1): 92–95.

2. Nwakesiri CF, Obasi P. Philosophical economics of African Women empowerment, Nnadiebube. Journal of Philosophy 2019; 3(1).

3. Charmes J, Wieringa S. Measuring women’s empowerment: an assessment of the gender-related development index and the gender empowerment measure. Journal of Human Development 2003; 4(3): 419–435. doi: 10.1080/1464988032000125773

4. Nazneiein S, Masud R. The Politics of Negotiating Gender Equality in Bangladesh. ESID Working Paper; 2017.

5. Chowdhury S. Resistance to gender mainstreaming: An analysis of the trend of women engagement in participatory gender-responsive budgeting in Bangladesh. Journal of Contemporary Governance and Public Policy 2020; 1(2): 53–66.

6. Qasim M, HAQ MAU, Hussain T, Roshan C. Does women’s well-being matter for demand and development of children? Ekoist: Journal of Econometrics and Statistics 2018; 14(29): 169–197.

7. Hossain B, Wadood SN. Potential unexplored? Tourism and economic growth of Bangladesh. Journal of Tourismology 2020; 6(1): 63–77.

8. Banerjee PK, Ahmed MN, Hossain MM. Bank, stock market and economic growth: Bangladesh perspective. The Journal of Developing Areas 2017; 51(2): 17–29. doi: 10.1353/jda.2017.0028

9. Abdin J. Women Empowerment in Bangladesh. SSRN Electronic Journal. Published online 2008. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1031612

10. Nadim SJ, Nurlukman AD. The impact of women empowerment on poverty reduction in rural area of Bangladesh: Focusing on village development program. Journal of Government and Civil Society 2017; 1(2): 135–157.

11. Bangladesh Bank Report. 2019.

12. Babajide AA, Adegboye FB, Omankhanlen AE. Financial inclusion and economic growth in Nigeria‏. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues 2015; 5(3): 629–637.

13. Sahay R, Čihák M, N’Diaye P, et al. Financial inclusion: Can it meet multiple macroeconomic goals? Available online: file:///C:/Users/EDY/Downloads/_sdn1517.pdf (accessed on 23 October 2023).

14. Sarma M, Pais J. Financial inclusion and development. Journal of International Development 2010; 23(5): 613–628. doi: 10.1002/jid.1698

15. Barasa VN, Lugo C. Is M-PESA a model for financial inclusion and women empowerment in Keinya? In: Driouchi A (editor). Advances in Finance, Accounting, and Economics. IGI Global; 2015. pp. 101–123.

16. Belayeth Hussain AHM, Endut N, Das S, et al. Does financial inclusion increase financial resilience? Evidence from Bangladesh. Development in Practice 2019; 29(6): 798–807. doi: 10.1080/09614524.2019.1607256

17. Hendriks S. The role of financial inclusion in driving women’s economic empowerment. Development in Practice 2019; 29(8): 1029–1038.

18. Hussain S, Jullandhry S. Are urban women empowered in Pakistan? A study from a metropolitan city. Women’s Studies International Forum 2020; 82: 102390. doi: 10.1016/j.wsif.2020.102390

19. Siddik MNA. Does Financial Inclusion Promote Women Empowerment? Evidence from Bangladesh. Applied Economics and Finance 2017; 4(4): 169–177. doi: 10.11114/aef.v4i4.2514

20. Honohan P. Cross-country variation in household access to financial services. Journal of Banking and Finance 2008; 32(11): 2493–2500. doi: 10.1016/j.jbankfin.2008.05.004

21. Kim JH. A study on the effect of financial inclusion on the relationship between income inequality and economic growth. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade 2015; 52(2): 498–512. doi: 10.1080/1540496x.2016.1110467

22. Neaime S, Gaysset I. Financial inclusion and stability in MENA: Evidence from poverty and inequality. Finance Research Letters 2018; 24: 230–237. doi: 10.1016/j.frl.2017.09.007

23. Kumari DAT, Ferdous Azam SM. The mediating effect of financial inclusion on financial literacy and women's economic empowerment: A study among rural poor women in Sri Lanka. International Journal of Scientific & Technology 2019; 8(12): 719–729.

24. Cabeza-García L, Del Brio EB, Oscanoa-Victorio ML. Female financial inclusion and its impacts on inclusive economic development. Women’s Studies International Forum 2019; 77: 102300. doi: 10.1016/j.wsif.2019.102300

25. Aluthge C, Kumari DAT. The Determinants of financial inclusion among rural poor: An empirical study in Sri Lanka. Wayamba International Conference, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka; 2018.

26. Badullahewage SU. Financial inclusion and women’s economic empowerment in Northern Sri Lanka. International Journal of Business and Social Science 2019; 10(8): 128–134. doi: 10.30845/ijbss.v10n8p16

27. Bhatia S, Singh S. Empowering women through financial inclusion: A study of urban slums. Vikalpa 2019; 44(4): 182–197. doi: 10.1177/0256090919897809

28. Ahamed MM, Mallick SK. Is financial inclusion good for bank stability? International evidence. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 2019; 157: 403–427. doi: 10.1016/j.jebo.2017.07.027

29. Sarma M. Index of Financial Inclusion—A Measure of Financial Sector Inclusiveness. Working Papers on Money, Trade Finance and Development; 2012.

30. Sarma M. Measuring financial inclusion. Economics Bulletin 2015; 35(1): 604–611.

31. Sarma M. Measuring financial inclusion for Asian economies. In: Gopalan S, Kikuchi T (editors). Financial Inclusion in Asia. Palgrave Macmillan London; 2016.

32. Lenka SK, Bairwa AK. Does financial inclusion affect monetary policy in SAARC countries? Cogent Economics & Finance 2016; 4(1): 1127011. doi: 10.1080/23322039.2015.1127011

33. Shafi M, Liu J, Rein W. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on micro, small, and medium-sized Enterprises operating in Pakistan. Research in Globalization 2020; 2: 100018. doi: 10.1016/j.resglo.2020.100018

34. Park CY, Villafuerte J, Abiad A. An updated assessment of the economic impact of COVID-19. Available online: https://www.rolandberger.com/en/Insights/Publications/From-abnormal-to-new-normal.html (accessed on 23 October 2020).

35. Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1986; 51(6): 1173–1182. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173

36. Hayes AF. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. Guilford Press; 2017.

37. Akighir DT, Jacob TT, Ateata A. Agent banking and poverty reduction in Benue state, Nigeria. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 2020; 7(5): 213–229. doi: 10.14738/assrj.75.8058

38. Mosoti JM, Wafula J, Nyang’au A. Effect of mobile banking technology on the financial performance of deposit-taking microfinance institutions in Kenya. Journal of Economics and Finance 2022; 4(3): 297–308.

39. Dupas P, Robinson J. Why Don’t the poor save more? evidence from health savings experiments. American Economic Review 2013; 103(4): 1138–1171. doi: 10.1257/aer.103.4.1138

40. Kim DW, Yu JS, Hassan MK. Financial inclusion and economic growth in OIC countries. Research in International Business and Finance 2018; 43: 1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.ribaf.2017.07.178

41. Financial inclusion, rather than size, is the key to tackling income inequality. The Singapore Economic Review, World Scientific Publishing Company 2018. doi:10.1142/S0217590818410047

42. Chakravarty SR, Pal R. Measuring financial inclusion: An Axiomatic Approach. Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research 2010.

43. Chakravarty SR, Pal R. Financial inclusion in India: An axiomatic approach. Journal of Policy Modeling 2013; 35(5): 813–837. doi: 10.1016/j.jpolmod.2012.12.007

44. Aziz F, Sheikh SM, Shah IH. Financial inclusion for women empowerment in South Asian countries. Journal of Financial Regulation and Compliance 2022; 30(4): 489–502. doi: 10.1108/jfrc-11-2021-0092

45. SandersonChami R, Fulleinkamp C, Jahjah S. Are immigrant remittance flows a source of capital for development? IMF Staff Papers 2005; 52(1): 55–81.

46. Bruhn M, Love I. The real impact of improved access to finance: Evidence from Mexico. The Journal of Finance 2014; 69(3): 1347–1376. doi: 10.1111/jofi.12091

47. Financial inclusion and social development. International Journal of scientific research and management (IJSRM), Special Issue on National Level Conference Business Growth and Social Development 2014. pp.13–18.

48. Financial inclusion—A proactive role played by Indian banking sector & RBI in economic development. International Journal of Innovative Technology & Adaptive Management (IJITAM) 2014; 1(5): 2347–3622.

49. Garg N, Singh S. Financial literacy among youth. International Journal of Social Economics 2018; 45(1): 173–186. doi: 10.1108/IJSE-11-2016-0303

50. Padma A, Gopisetti R. Financial inclusion-a way forward to rural development. International Journal of Advanced Research and Innovations 2013; 1(5): 133–142.

51. Garg S, Agarwal P. Financial inclusion in India—A Review of initiatives and achievements. IOSR Journal of Business and Management 2014; 16(6): 52–61.

52. Ocasio VM. A human development approach to sustainable financial inclusion: The Case of microfinance in rural Bangladesh. Journal of Applied Business & Economics 2020; 22(4). doi: 10.33423/jabe.v22i4.2912

53. Levine R. Finance and growth: Theory and evidence. In: Aghion P, Durlauf S (editors). Handbook of Economic Growth. North Holland; 2005.

54. Allein F, Demirgüç-Kunt A, Klapper L, Martineiz Peiria MS. The foundations of financial inclusion: Understanding ownership and use of financial accounts. Journal of Financial Intermediation 2012; 27(C): 1–30.

55. Ghatak S, Siddiki JU. The use of the ARDL approach in estimating virtual exchange rates in India. Journal of Applied Statistics 2001; 28(5): 573–583

56. George B, Thomachan KT. Financial inclusion and women empowerment: A gender perspective. International Journal of Research-Granthaalayah 2018; 6(5): 229–237. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1270189

57. Yaumidin UK, Suhodo DS, Yuniarti PI, Hidayatina A. Financial inclusion for women: impact evaluation on Islamic microfinance to women’s empowerment in Indonesia. In: Zulkhibri M, Ismail AG (editors). Financial Inclusion and Poverty Alleviation. Palgrave Macmillan Cham; 2017. pp. 81–140.

58. Michalopoulos S, Laeven L, Levine R. Financial Innovation and Endogenous Growth. Social Science Research Network (SSRN); 2011.

59. Simiyu RS, Ndiang’ui PN, Ngugi CC. Eiffeict of financial innovations and operationalization on market size in commercial banks: A case study of equity bank, Eldoret branch. International Journal of Business and Social Science 2014; 8(5): 227–250.

60. Odularu GO, Okunrinboye OA. Modeling the impact of financial innovation on the demand for money in Nigeria. African Journal of Business Management 2009; 3(2): 39–51.

61. Mwinzi DM. The Effect of Financial Innovation on Economic Growth in Kenya [Master’s thesis]. University of Nairobi; 2014.

62. Chin MS, Chou YK, Michalopoulos S. Financial innovations and endogenous growth. Journal of Financial Intermediation 2015; 25(2): 25–40. doi: 10.1016/j.jfi.2014.04.001

63. Succena SA. Empowerment of Women in Rural India through SHGs—A Step towards financial inclusion. International Journal of Trade, Economics, and Finance 2016; 7(4): 153–156.

64. Ibtasam S, Razaq L, Anwar HW, et al. Knowledge, access, and decision-making: Women’s financial inclusion in Pakistan. In: Proceedings of the 1st ACM SIGCAS Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies (COMPASS 2018); 20–22 June 2018; New York, NY, US. pp. 1–12.

65. Tiwari P. Financial Inclusion of Tribal Women: Role of Upcoming Women’s Banks. International Journal of Science and Research 2012; 3(7): 4–5.

66. Sanjaya M, NursechafiaN. Financial inclusion and inclusive growth: A cross-province analysis in Indonesia. Bulletin of Monetary Economics and Banking 2014; 18(3). doi: 10.21098/bemp.v18i3.551

67. Hannig A, Jansein S. Financial Inclusion and Financial Stability: Current Policy Issues. ADBI Working Paper; 2010.

68. Seven U, Coskun Y. Does financial development reduce income inequality and poverty? Evidence from emerging countries. Emerging Markets Review 2016; 26: 34–63. doi: 10.1016/j.ememar.2016.02.00

69. Demirguc-Kunt A, Klapper LF, Singer D. Financial Inclusion and Legal Discrimination Against Women: Evidence from Developing Countries. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper; 2013.

70. Handa J, Khan SR. Financial development and economic growth: A symbiotic relationship. Applied Financial Economics 2008; 18: 1033–1049.

71. Banerjee PK, Kayum MA, Uddin H. Financial sector development and its contribution to economic development of Bangladesh. In: Barai MK (editor). Bangladesh’s Economic and Social Progress. Palgrave Macmillan; 2020. pp. 147–178.

72. Moghavvemi S, Lee ST, Lee SP. Perceived overall service quality and customer satisfaction: a comparative analysis between local and foreign banks in Malaysia. International Journal of Bank Marketing 2018; 36(5): 908–930. doi: 10.1108/IJBM-06-2017-0114

73. McCrae, Robert R. Social consequences of experiential openness. American Psychological Association 1996; 120(3), 323–337. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.323

74. Feirdous J, Al Mosharrafa R, Farzana N. Agent banking in Bangladesh is a new era in a financial institution by enhancing customers’ accessibility and profitability of banks. The International Journal of Business & Management 2015; 3(3): 206.

75. Chiteli N. Agent banking Operations as a competitive strategy of commercial Banks in Kisumu city. International journal of Business and Social Science 2013; 4(13): 306–324.

76. Siddiquie MR. Agent banking, the revolution in financial service sector of Bangladesh. IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance 2014; 5(1): 28–32.

77. Rahman B. The impact of agency banking to the development of SME, Sector: The case of Bangladesh. World Journal of Social Sciences 2016; 6(3): 59–75.

78. Rahman MM. Prospect and challenges of agent banking on financial inclusion in Bangladesh. Amity Global Business Review 2019.

79. Ivatury G, Mas I. The early experience with Branchless banking. CGAP Focus Note 2008.

80. CGAP. Branchless Banking in Pakistan: A Laboratory for Innovation.

81. Nisha N, Nawrin K, Bushra A. Agent banking and financial inclusion: The case of Bangladesh. International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management (IJABIM) 2020; 11(1): 127–141. doi: 10.4018/IJABIM.2020010108

82. Isaac Munyao Muasya and Francis Kerongo. The Effects of Agency Banking on Access To Financial Services: A Survey Of Commercial Banks In Kilindini District. International Journal of Management Research and Business Strategy 2015; 4(3).

83. Mohd. Al-Hattami H, Ahmed Hashed Abdullah A, Abdullah Ali Khamis A. Determinants of intention to continue using internet banking: Indian context. Innovative Marketing 2021; 17(1): 40–52. doi: 10.21511/im.17(1).2021.04

84. Krejcie RV, Morgan DW. Determining Sample Size for Research Activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement 1970; 30(3): 607–610. doi: 10.1177/001316447003000308

85. Alreck PL, Settle RB. The survey research handbook: Guidelines and strategies for conducting a survey, statement of responsibility. Irwin Professional Pub; 1995.

86. Hair Jr, Money JF, Samoueil AH. Research methods for business. Chicheisteir: John Willeiy & Sons Ltd; 2007.

87. Cámara N, Tuesta D. Measuring financial inclusion: A multidimensional index. BBVA Research Working 2014; 14(26).

88. Sharma D. Nexus between financial inclusion and economic growth. Journal of Financial Economic Policy 2016; 8(1): 13–36. doi: 10.1108/jfep-01-2015-0004

89. Semahegne Y. The Effect of Agent Banking Service On Customer Satisfaction: A Case Study On United Bank SC [PhD thesis]. St. Mary’s University; 2018.

90. Mahmood, R., & Sarker, S. 2015. Inclusive growth through branchless banking: A review of agent banking and its impact. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development 6(23): 86-93.

91. Malek, B. A., Mohtar, S., & Ariffin, A. S. 2017. Moderating effect of BSN banking agent towards the financial inclusion performance of BSN: A conceptual overview. Journal of Advanced Research in Business and Management Studies 7(1): 79-90.‏

92. Malek, B. A., Mohtar, S., & Ariffin, A. S. 2017. The factor that affects the effectiveness of agent banking characteristics on financial inclusion performance: A study from Malaysian government-owned banks in Neigeiri Sembilan. Journal of Advanced Research in Business and Management Studies 7(1): 91-102.

93. Chude, Nkiru Patricia-Nezianya & Chude, Daniel Izuchukwu, Impact of Agent Banking on Performance of Deposit Money, Banks in Nigeria,Research Journal of Finance and Accounting, ISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online), Vol.5, No.9, 2014

94. Achugamonu, B. U., Taiwo, J. N., Ikpeifan, O. A., Olurinola, I. O., & Okoriei, U. Ei. 2016. Agent banking and financial inclusion: The Nigerian experience.

95. Khalid, S., Reihman, S. U., Ullah, Z., & Khattak, M. A. 2021. Impact of Branchless banking on commercial banks profitability. Journal of Management Research 7(1): 1-20.

96. Malhotra, A., Schuler, S. R., & Boender, C. 2002, June. Measuring women’s empowerment as a variable in international development. In background paper prepared for the World Bank Workshop on Poverty and Gender: New Perspectives 28

97. Biswas TK, Kabir M. Measuring women’s empowerment : Indicators and measurement techniques. Social Change. 2004, 34(3): 64-77. doi: 10.1177/004908570403400305

98. Malhotra, A., & Schuler, S. R. 2005. Women’s empowerment as a variable in international development. Measuring empowerment: Cross-disciplinary perspectives 1(1): 71-88.

99. Schuler SR, Islam F, Rottach E. Women’s empowerment revisited: a case study from Bangladesh. Development in Practice. 2010, 20(7): 840-854. doi: 10.1080/09614524.2010.508108

100. Anyanwu, F. A., Ananwudei, A. C., & Nnojei, A. I. 2018. Financial inclusion: Nigeria’s microfinance model effect assessment on women empowerment. European Journal of Human Resource Management Studies

101. Yadav, R. K., & Saxena, A. K. 2019. Impact of financial inclusion on women empowerment in rural area through banking services. Global Journal of Enterprise Information System 11(1): 22-30

102. Bhatia S, Singh S. Empowering Women Through Financial Inclusion: A Study of Urban Slum. Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers. 2019, 44(4): 182-197. doi: 10.1177/0256090919897809

103. Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Andersen, R. Ei., & Tatham, R. L. 2006. Multivariate data analysis (6th eid.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall

104. Reinartz W, Haenlein M, Henseler J. An empirical comparison of the efficacy of covariance-based and variance-based SEM. International Journal of Research in Marketing. 2009, 26(4): 332-344. doi: 10.1016/j.ijresmar.2009.08.001

105. Jörg Henseler, Christian M. Ringle, 2009, Rudolf R. Sinkovics, The use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing, New Challenges to International Marketing, ISBN: 978-1-84855-468-9, eISBN: 978-1-84855-469-6.

106. F. Hair Jr J, Sarstedt M, Hopkins L, G. Kuppelwieser V. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). European Business Review. 2014, 26(2): 106-121. doi: 10.1108/ebr-10-2013-0128

107. Hair JF, Ringle CM, Sarstedt M. PLS-SEM: Indeed a Silver Bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice. 2011, 19(2): 139-152. doi: 10.2753/mtp1069-6679190202

108. Fornell C, Larcker DF. Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error: Algebra and Statistics. Journal of Marketing Research. 1981, 18(3): 382-388. doi: 10.1177/002224378101800313

109. Henseler J, Ringle CM, Sarstedt M. A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science. 2014, 43(1): 115-135. doi: 10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8

110. Esposito Vinzi V, Chin WW, Henseler J, et al. Handbook of Partial Least Squares. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2010. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-32827-8

111. Wynne W. Chin, 1988, Commentary: Issues and Opinion on Structural Equation Modeling, JSTOR, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Mar., 1998), pp. vii-xvi (10 pages)

112. Sarstedt M, Ringle CM, Hair JF. Treating Unobserved Heterogeneity in PLS-SEM: A Multi-method Approach. Partial Least Squares Path Modeling. Published online 2017: 197-217. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-64069-3_9

113. Dawson JF. Moderation in Management Research: What, Why, When, and How. Journal of Business and Psychology. 2013, 29(1): 1-19. doi: 10.1007/s10869-013-9308-7

114. Frazier PA, Tix AP, Barron KE. “Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research”: Correction to Frazier et al. (2004). Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2004, 51(2): 157-157. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.51.2.157

115. Duflo E. Women Empowerment and Economic Development. Journal of Economic Literature. 2012, 50(4): 1051-1079. doi: 10.1257/jel.50.4.1051

116. Yaya S, Uthman OA, Ekholuenetale M, et al. Women empowerment as an enabling factor of contraceptive use in sub-Saharan Africa: a multilevel analysis of cross-sectional surveys of 32 countries. Reproductive Health. 2018, 15(1). doi: 10.1186/s12978-018-0658-5

117. Miedema SS, Haardörfer R, Girard AW, et al. Women’s empowerment in East Africa: Development of a cross-country comparable measure. World Development. 2018, 110: 453-464. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.031

118. N Mosteanu, A Faccia, L Cavaliere, S Bhatia, Digital Technologies’ Implementation within Financial and Banking System during Socio Distancing Restrictions – Back to the Future, International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology, 11(6), 2020, pp. 307-315, 9 Pages Posted: 28 Jul 2020

119. Mehrotra, A. N., & Yetman, J. 2015. Financial inclusion - Issues for central banks. BIS Quarterly Review March.‏

120. Mehrotra, A., and J. Yetman. 2015. Financial inclusion – Issues for central banks. BIS Quarterly Review 83–96.

121. Chibba M. Financial Inclusion, Poverty Reduction and the Millennium Development Goals. The European Journal of Development Research. 2009, 21(2): 213-230. doi: 10.1057/ejdr.2008.17

122. Rohde P, Ichikawa L, Simon GE, et al. Associations of child sexual and physical abuse with obesity and depression in middle-aged women. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2008, 32(9): 878-887. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.11.004

123. Panter-Brick C, Eggerman M, Gonzalez V, et al. Violence, suffering, and mental health in Afghanistan: a school-based survey. The Lancet. 2009, 374(9692): 807-816. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(09)61080-1


DOI: https://doi.org/10.54517/esp.v9i1.1955
(137 Abstract Views, 77 PDF Downloads)

Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


Copyright (c) 2023 Tasnim Sohrab, Fazli Idris, Noorasiah Sulaiman

License URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/